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The twisted-looking hill and buildings spiral upwards, expressing a vertical momentum. Here, as in his View of Toledo, El Greco intends to inspire devout fervour and to lift the human soul towards a higher spiritual realm. The impetus behind The Resurrection c. Art had a divine, otherworldly purpose for El by El Greco.

The work shows the Greco, the last great European painter to articulate such spiritual archetypes. Stephen … to , unlike its Italian counterpart the Accademia di San Luca in Rome, bury the body of the knight … which was set up in the mid-seventeenth century. Pacheco had begun an art and around [which] are many Academy at his home, where artists and humanist intellectuals could gather people … and above all of this for informal discussions on art. However, it did not function like the Italian shall be painted an open heaven or Dutch schools, where training organizations subsidized and offered of glory.

Artists, the work an imaginative rendition working in tandem, acted as instructors for a week at a time. Murillo himself regarding the salvation of the initially worked alongside Francisco de Herrera —85 , while Juan de soul. The academy lasted a mere 14 years, Murillo a young boy signifies that a lesson closing due to insufficient funds in Surviving works by Murillo show him imagines the earthly sphere as using drawing as a preparatory aid for ideas and as a means to entice clients an incomplete reflection of the with full commissions.

In doing so, he his Self-portrait c. A similar problem existed in Spain, with a number of practitioners and literary intellectuals forever trying to resolve parochial attitudes to art. The aforementioned Self-portrait c. The inscription on the also categorized. Despite artists regularly employing lawyers to help litigate wishes and prayers of his children. Still life subjects certainly brought up the artistic rear, but their immense popularity evidences that collectors cared little for critical opinion or for theoretical treatises on art when making a purchase.

Beyond observations of juxtaposition — old and young, smooth and rough, light and dark, clay, copper, glass, wicker and wood, etc. Yet if there is a fable to be found, no historian has thus far recognized it.

The semi-transparent eggs sizzling in the shiny bowl miraculously set before our very eyes. Created on a grand scale — they are more than 2.

Death in the form of a skeleton and holding a scythe snuffs Still Life with Lemons, Oranges and a The offer of a moral seems to be a quintessential feature of the Spanish still out the candle of life and tramples upon the earthly symbols of knowledge, Still Life with Quince c.

It is life genre. He established the the only still life with a verified signature by , where the still life subjects hold an erudite religious message. Typically composed mainly example of the genre with its masterful on the one hand suggests licentiousness and original sin, but on the other pays finite, even powerful bishops, popes and kings.

Although the plan initially general aristocratic household. It was not commissioned for the King, proved a sticking point. It to ignore the presence was a victory secured at great cost, of the young Infanta his arduous work at court meaning Finis Gloriae Mundi Margarita. Phillip ordered the cross of Santiago to ephemerality.

It was an important of the figures implying a visit to confer royal approval on depicts the Infanta Margarita with her Maids patron of the arts. The nobility of painting had become of Honour. If there 95 and Roger de Piles — saw art and are two distinct and equivalent sorts of knowing — history as separate entities.

Indeed, the history sensual and rational thinking — then there ought to of art did not develop into a notable modern be two theoretical or scientific types of knowledge discipline until the nineteenth century, around relating to each — logic and aesthetics. As previously With the Vasari was perhaps the first historian of art to see introduction of the modern notion of aesthetics, art as part of an organic process of growth and however, this ordered mode of thinking about inevitable decline, but he did not appreciate the art began to be challenged.

Alexander Gottlieb social or historical circumstances that resulted Baumgarten —62 first used the term in its in the changes he identified in differing artistic modern sense in Aesthetica Moral ideas, such as virtuousness or experience has a perfection all of its own, self-determination were, he argued, pertinent to which has no recourse to logic or reason. These theorists perceived the significance of art to be an attempt to accomplish timeless aesthetic For him and slightly later Enlightenment thinkers, principles.

In stressing the but in terms of taste, or sensory knowledge. In his writer on the arts. In doing so, Herder established the Critique of Judgment , Kant argued for a His most notable fundamentals of the discipline we understand today: in other words, tracking distinct quality of aesthetic experience, claiming that work is Interviews the progress, events and changes of artworks over time.

Our perspective of there was a difference between logical knowledge on the Lives and art as evolution evolves with this system in place, from which we can establish concepts and knowledge gained immediately from Works of the Great a history. Artists, Ancient and Modern. By the middle of the eighteenth century, space, time and causation are mere sensibilities.

A pure judgement of taste or beauty is achieved without a concept of the object. Venus of Urbino c. Light and colour elements to the overall no longer seem to purpose of the painting. It was first art historian and developed by the Austrian Aby Warburg — cultural theorist, alongside his fellow art historians: Panofsky himself, founded the Library Fritz Saxl — and the philosopher and historian for Cultural Studies, Ernst Cassirer — Alongside formalism, the Bibliothek Iconography and Iconology was the most prominent Warburg, which aesthetic methodology of the era.

In a nutshell, iconography and iconology are the means of Erwin Panofsky — was a recovering symbolic or allegorical German-Jewish art historian. His work was content concealed in artworks. Often significant in the modern academic study thought to be the total antithesis of of iconography.

In other words, it is the instant factual, B expressional — formal analysis. Knowledge of literary sources History of types insight Iconolographical confidence in the peaceful intentions of others. This single cursory gesture, however, leads us world of images, stories conditions, specific themes beyond a habitual social occurrence to create a larger mental picture that is not and allegories.

By further coordinating in our mind relevant by objects and events. Rather, all three levels of analysis are operational simultaneously. A second level of portraits, we have no idea of what sculpture of the investigation reveals that the chaste-looking pose they actually represent, or what is goddess Aphrodite with a right hand covering her modesty is our best being conveyed about the particular made by Praxiteles independent evidence for the image being a generic individual.

Though local variant of Venus or Aphrodite. A third level undeniable impact on the subject the original no might reveal a whole range of symbolic and cultural of art history, proving instrumental longer exists, there viewpoints regarding divinity, desire, lust and throughout the twentieth century.

With a less particularly his influential Early informed viewpoint, however, we may not even be Study of Netherlandish Painting: able to engage in the interpretative act at any level. It Its Origins and Character The subject was an important standing in society and accomplishments. Without knowledge important war leader.

In essence, psychoanalysis involves the psychic context of art production the recovery of unconscious thoughts and feelings. But how are the rudiments existence — an idea outlined in his famous text Three Essays on the Theory of Freudian psychoanalysis relevant to the on Sexuality His that we can easily do away with, but is active, and part of an eternal battle so-called talking cure had a practicality between the conscious and unconscious worlds.

This neurotic instinct is at the core of culture, and human artistic expression permanently carries the traumas and anxieties of the unconscious mind. For Freud, too, art is a type of sublimation, generated by the clash between impulse and civilization, but carrying out a social purpose or compromise between the two contradictory states. His theories relating to the body, sexuality and early childhood development have very vocal critics within feminism.

It had no mother. There is, nonetheless, a serious problem with respect to Freudian ideas and their potential connection with works of art. What it stands for has endured as a topic of debate by writers and thinkers, as much as by art historians.

French of the day. The standards and educate socially. Gersaint was an art dealer. The citizen, otherwise, forever active, sweats, scurries, constantly agonizes in search of ever more strenuous occupations … He courts the great whom he hates, and the rich whom he despises. Civilised man is capable of living only in the opinion of others. The problem rested therefore in man and nature, their connection to one another, and to civilization.

For it was in Jean-Jacques Rousseau whose writings influenced the course of the Enlightenment throughout Europe. The beautifully dressed by Jean Restout. There was no decline in the creation by Jean-Antoine of churches, monasteries and other religious Watteau — is usually establishments, or of the works meant to furnish interpreted as a reference to their walls.

Enlightenment philosophers who cast the radical change in French doubt on Christian belief were a tiny component, taste, referencing the preceding and few renounced religion outright.

Enlightenment thinkers collectively believed in the power of the Sun King by Pierre Mignard the mind to resolve every difficulty — whether political, social, philosophical, —95 is being packed away, religious or artistic — by studying it from a purely rational perspective. This highly ornate style reached its height during the middle years of the reign of Louis XV — As an expression of modern taste, the Rococo style was principally applied to interior decoration, furniture and tapestries.

Here, the wavy, asymmetrical lines recollect the rocaille forms that evoke the curves of seashells. The term also indicates the aristocratic love of frivolity, sensuality and courtly amusements. In the revolutionary period, Rococo came to mean a shallow confection, one that fulfilled the distasteful fancies of a self-indulgent ruling class. The Rococo spirit might appear anathema to the enlightened mind, but its art animated the early and central years of the eighteenth century. Although it had no coherent principle, Rococo had a certain aesthetic logic to it.

Its art sought freedom from scholastic constraints in favour of spontaneity and novelty, disregarding the traditional rules and conventions in Classical composition and ancient Greek architecture. Ironically, the Rococo style originated in France, where Classical authority, logic and clarity had been the driving force in artistic circles during the sixteenth century, particularly in the work of the neo-classical painter Nicolas Poussin — and architect Louis le Vau — In , however, Louis XIV had requested works of art that were far more playful and energetic than those previously authorized for the Pierrot c.

Calls for an intrinsically carefree aesthetic were widespread Watteau. The work was formerly entitled during the era. In his poem An Essay on Criticism , the poet, satirist Gilles, but is now considered to be a and amateur landscape gardener Alexander Pope — advocated that representation of the Commedia not all great artistic work can be explained by rules.

The artist painted two versions of this subject, drawing heavily on classical form for the shepherds. Unsurprisingly, in , Watteau was admitted to the Royal Academy of Arts, his Pilgrimage to the Isle of Cythera accepted as a new genre of painting.

The Scale of Love is part of a series of small paintings on the theme of music. It may be queried whether pictures such as these are what they seem to be: a mere festivity of the pleasures of the refined classes. It has been said that the bust in the background is of Pythagoras who is believed to have discovered a musical scale based on a mathematical ratio.

Here, fantasy and reality collide, and the work is permeated with a definite sense of irony. The son of a another version the by the old French monarchy, and indicated the seafaring, mercantile and economic ascendancy of painter, Boucher was inspired by following year. New wealth created a burgeoning audience for art.

It is no accident that a Golden Age of British painting should British innovation have happened in the Hanoverian era. Subsequent to the Glorious Revolution of —, which essentially established a constitutional parliament over the British monarchy, the country entered a long period of economic and political expansion. Although royal authority was not destabilized, the old aristocratic values and tastes were openly challenged in British society, which had greater journalistic freedom than many other European monarchies.

The Marriage Much less conservative in their tastes, this new art-buying public relished contemporary Settlement themes in pictures. As William Vaughan has rightly argued, the century fostered a whole host by William Hogarth. All have a connection with literature and theatre, specifically the British literary giants of William Shakespeare — , John Milton —74 and Jonathan Swift — , as indicated by the books on the table in The Painter and his Pug His exhibition reviews social reform revealed mores that were worldly but also demanding, his aesthetic ideas leading him to place prominence on the educational and morally uplifting in art.

The magic is beyond comprehension … it is as if vapor had been breathed on the canvas. Wright painted a series of and compositions in seventeenth-century Dutch art. Hubert Robert depicted the exact David. Covered in smoke and highlighted go to fight a family from Alba Longa. The Bastille by Hubert Robert. It is perhaps his The painter Jean-Jacques Louis most profoundly stirring painting, and the David —82 was a shrewd greatest political picture in the history art.

Finally throwing painters. Elected Vatican, Rome. It is a fittingly austere but was himself incarcerated when monument to the writer and painter who had more restrained forces began to praised, and was swept up in, the tyranny of triumph in Revolution that ended a turbulent century. There was no individual Romantic mindset.

The re-evaluation of feudal art de Laville-Leroux, — , and literature in the eighteenth century led to a complete reappraisal of the arts, which for the Romantics meant an art that was not governed John Constable — , by rules, but rather was attuned to the sensibility of the individual. Romanticism was principally J.

Lost The bourgeois classes mainly and demanding involvement in government. While sway over art exerted by the European populace rose at a startling rate, agricultural production worked academies, the Church and hard to keep pace. Industrialization managed to create a new social group the monarchy diminished, entirely, the working class, whose move from the countryside to the cities the principal cause being the often unwillingly shattered traditional social stability. A The Industrial Revolution began in earnest in England in Expansion desire for human equality created a new wealthy class augmented by industry and pacified by and empirical ideas meant parliamentary amendment, but the price in human terms was to heap upon that individual feelings and the working class truly appalling privations.

Just two decades into the Industrial Revolution, Philippe de Loutherbourg Recent scholarship argues painted Coalbrookdale by Night Here, the artist moves away from as darkness, solitude, vastness, danger and pain, crucial by John his renowned sedate horse portraits with components in Romantic art.

Here, the boundaries between neo-classicism and Romanticism seem blurred. It places the viewer at an unsure standpoint — typical of the terrifying and evocative effects of the sublime in Romantic painting.

His works convey his interest in and no such vessel seems to have existed — but it nonetheless demonstrates the elements and his dissatisfaction with his highly Romantic temperament. This autobiographical account, William the materialism of society. Turner likely alludes to scientific advances in Snowstorm, in particular the research of his friends the Mist c. Dramatic subjects Constable. Landscape was interpreted as an eternal, constantly changing and living organism.

These images satirized the vogue for picturesque landscape paintings as evaluation of nature well as a fashion for the great outdoors, fresh air and the natural environment.

Ultimately, this type of approach led to a radically new aesthetic regarding picture-making, exemplified by one of the greatest revolutions in the history of art — the plein-air open-air studies of Impressionism. New scientific and geological understanding led to geologists and philosophical thinkers expressing the theory of vitalism: that humanity was not detached from nature, but inextricably bound up with the natural process. Constable was awarded the gold medal at the Salon in Paris in nearly beauties..

Only 15 survived, with five dying shortly after their rescue. Considered old-fashioned now, during the era it was seen as revolutionary and progressive, much like the culture in which it was made. French artists transgressed academic boundaries in new ways, too. The black soldier depicted waving a flag at the summit of the pyramidal group of misery might support this idea, and it certainly shifts the drama from pessimism to optimism.

While supporters of the restored Bourbon monarchy of Louis XVIII The Raft saw it as a meaningless spectacle of human suffering, revolutionary Republicans loyal to Napoleon praised its exposure of political and Royalist nepotism. The Raft was awarded a gold medal in the category of genre painting, not history painting — reflecting the current artistic conservatism.

The painting is a rousing ode to Republican ideals, inspired by the July uprising of With proletariat and bourgeois companions in tow, Liberty straddles the barricade to attack the Swiss Guard before suffering the fate of the corpses underfoot. Purchased by Louis Philippe at the Salon of , partly to convince the French public of his Republican sympathies, the work was deemed too inflammatory for long-term exhibition. Indeed, it was not until that it was considered suitable for permanent exhibition.

Here, the A Romantic obsession with irrationally creative and destructive forces is slumbering figure is accosted by dark-spotted unsurpassed in the work of Francisco Goya, particularly his print series Los horned owls, a prediction of ill fortune.

The lynx on Caprichos The Caprices , published in Goya probably chose the title the floor keeps watch, perhaps warning of a need because the authoritarian Roman Catholic Jesuit Order in Spain ascertained The Dream to keep vigilant. United with reason, she is the monster of all arts and the source of their wonders. In , and under threat from the brutal Inquisition, Goya withdrew Los Caprichos from sale. Carlos IV later bought all the engraved copperplates and unsold sets of prints in , no doubt to help usher them into obscurity.

Nochlin articulates the view in the likes of Two Musician Girls — both that The Slave Market presents the by complicating and negating Western imperialist, racist and Orientalist stereotypes and assumptions regarding the perspective of male, European Orient, and by intentionally eradicating power; other art historians contend the orientalist gaze.

The subject was of special interest because in Britain had enacted the first legislation to abolish slavery, insisting that the practice be stopped throughout its Empire by That goal was actually realized in , and the years that followed saw a surge in campaigning across the world against the trade.

Effecting the Abolition of the Slave Trade, and he would certainly have read much abolitionist writing. Nonetheless, The Slave Ship is one of the most disturbing of all paintings depicting the slave trade. The sobering subject a brother? The exhibition coincided with preparations for the first international convention of the British and Foreign Anti-Slavery Society in London in June While the British made noises of righteous indignation, the slave trade remained legal in many countries until In the United States, slavery was a fiery issue.

The image appealed both to abolitionists, who saw in it an exposure of the miserable conditions of slaves, and the pro-slaver faction, who saw depicted the peaceful existence between slaves and owners. The Status Quo Crumbles The turmoil at the end of the eighteenth century and the complete transformation of European society in the early nineteenth century meant that life had altered greatly from one decade to the next.

Europe shifted from a predominantly rural, agrarian culture, to a progressively urban and industrial one of iron, steel and coal, meaning that a sense of consistency and stability became ever more difficult to achieve. But with this change came great economic and political slave ship La Amistad.

While romantic, revolutionary and orientalist visions expressed a degree of alienation and escapism, artists simultaneously mounted a great challenge to the status quo. Newspaper reports on to conform, and was one of the great trademarks of modernist pioneers. The the exhibition of the painting led to the belief that the work portrayed life in genesis of twentieth-century creativity was thus born of nineteenth-century Kentucky, but in fact it showed a street scene in Washington DC.

His reign lasted until the disastrous Franco-Prussian War in , ushering in a Third Republic that brought an end to the monarchy in France. This new type of margins of public life. The first the benefits of which found their way straight into the pockets of the bourgeois upper classes. The Stone Breakers and the later The Peasants of Flagey go some way towards The Stone Breakers capturing the complexity of the new social formations in France, when rural populations were drawn away by industrialization.

These dynamics help explain part of the social context for art between the s and s. By the s, however, Realism in painting had come to mean not just a commitment to the motifs derived from the visible world, but also that the surface of artworks should be employed to make the observer feel its existence. So the idea of modernity was intrinsically associated with the material effects of art. At this juncture, Realism and Naturalism began to morph into something Realism very different, even in the custody of Jean-Baptiste-Camille Corot — — the greatest landscape artist of his age, who considered himself a Realist painter.

Out of the 5, submitted to the Salon jury, 3—4, works were rejected, resulting in an uproar that quickly caught the attention of Louis Napoleon III. The result was a separate exhibition, ostensibly to allow the public to decide. Controversy continued as regards artistic norms. The reviewer related to Olympia, and most were critical. In the opinion of T. Typical of the paintings of the time were La Source by Ingres and The Birth of Venus by Alexandre Cabanel —99 , which expressed the innocence, freshness and vitality of the female body in nineteenth-century academic classicism.

Colonialist racial arrogances additionally connected whiteness with civilization, and blackness with inferiority. Lest we forget, Manet was not only seeking out new subjects in art, but also developing a new style of painting by experimenting with recognized this revolution in painterly effects. This is another reason why the Monet initiated a fund to help raise money to keep the picture made such an impression on a younger generation of artists, who work in France.

Many have argued that Impressionism made the subject irrelevant. For these art historians, what made the movement historically significant was the willingness of artists to paint virtually anything that Subjects of presented itself as a subject. An artist can say anything with fruit and flowers, or simply with clouds. Few, if any, of these painters thought of themselves as insurgents or outsiders. More recently, however, artist historians including T. Clark, Robert Herbert, Griselda Pollock, Linda Nochlin and Witney Chadwick have made the social context of Impressionism central to the study of late nineteenth- Social context century art.

And these new social formations were similarly the subject of Impressionists and Post-Impressionists. In the s and 70s, the search for modern subject matter generally focused on social environments altered by the impact of industrialization and the swelling bourgeois class. The figures that Impression: Sunrise by Claude Monet.

It had the advantage of a high viewpoint —72 by Berthe Morisot. This was a favoured spot of the upper-class haut spot for women to take their children, fonctionnaires: quiet, safe and with clean air, and thus ideal for well-to-do while their husbands went to work.

The scene is not an haut-bourgeois haunt or a working-class hangout, Seurat. Seurat was fascinated by the but probably represents the petite bourgeoisie of Paris — clerks, shop-workers optical relationship between colour and and maids dressed in department-store fashions, with a few troopers added form. This work saw him hailed as the into the mix. This is a space of utopia — or a dystopic place of alienation.

The leader of the Neo-Impressionists. Leisure is now part of the diversions of mass culture — parks, cheap entertainments, music halls and popular music — understood as a period integrated into the rhythms of labour and production. It is this form of cultural activity that we now conceive as modernism. This complex creation is suitably strange enough to raise questions. Why are we, the spectator, not part of the reflection? The faces of the prostitutes imply European city.

Impressionist artists were depicting the characters who were the boredom of their work as they sit an inevitable feature of modern urban life, and they did so, it seems, without waiting for custom. Even so, it may be in and , his art was conducted in a self-imposed relative isolation at his home in Aix- considered to be, in the broadest sense, the last phase of Realism.

There are various points to note about the movement: en-Provence. Early on, he encountered the problem of how to modify Impressionist innovations to his work.

As a philosophical system, Positivism acknowledged the scientifically verified, logical or mathematically proven. In doing so, it insisted that our sense perceptions are the only satisfactory type of knowledge. These ideas were already noticeable in the work of Realist artists, who sought out the everyday tangible facts of the modern world.

For the Impressionists, this meant restricting art to an objective translation of the visible world, capturing their immediate, fleeting sensations — Mont Sainte- the impression — with the utmost possible faithfulness. At the end the conventionally brown canvas. The finished picture, not just the of his life, the artist study, could record the immediate effects of an open-air scene, and acknowledged the this first impression would not be lost.

The problem was how to remain true [—] , its meticulous and to the luminous colour, evanescent sensations and arduous application at odds with fluidity of Impressionism without losing all sense the spontaneity and ephemeral of structural order, solidity and form in a painting. His view of Mont Sainte- indication of the explicitly social and Victoire Seen From Les Lauves —04 , for political nature of Neo-Impressionist instance, reveals a complex construction made of or Divisionist art.

The artist used a technique of flat, juxtaposed or divided — but not mixed on the criss-crossing brushstrokes, which he palette as in Impressionist works.

What are By the end of the century, many artists and Symbolist literary critics rejected Realism, Impressionism we? Where are we and Neo-Impressionism, and sneered at Naturalism. They saw the latter as artificial, appealing going? Partly as an Paul Gauguin. He escape from the purely naturalistic and tangible in art, and partly as an attempt to work more first visited Tahiti in truthfully, many artists turned to subjectivity, fantasy and the imagination for inspiration.

I have to immerse Starry Night by Vincent van Gogh. This type fatalistic worldview. So, while Vincent van Gogh —90 in of experimentation was a sign of his Starry Night hoped to express in nature the divine what was to come in art. Modern beauty and truths of God filling the universe, Edvard Munch movements in twentieth-century — depicted in The Scream deterioration, art, including Expressionism, despair and eventual madness. Painters and sculptors like Abstraction and Surrealism, Munch, Gauguin, August Rodin — and other all have origins in Symbolism.

What are we? Where are we going? Paul Klee — and Pablo The Symbolist decadents saw human beings as fundamentally Picasso — Although corrupt, self-seeking and petty-minded, bringing unavoidable these young artists grew up in the harm and destruction upon civilization. God did not give them twenty-four pounders conflict. Metabolite profiles and the risk of developing diabetes. Esteve, E. Gut microbiota interactions with obesity, insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes: did gut microbiote co-evolve with insulin resistance?

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Flannick, J. Loss-of-function mutations in SLC30A8 protect against type 2 diabetes. Common variant in MTNR1B associated with increased risk of type 2 diabetes and impaired early insulin secretion. Rosengren, A. Overexpression of alpha2A-adrenergic receptors contributes to type 2 diabetes. Tang, Y. Transl Med. These paper provides an example in which a genetic finding in an animal model of diabetes has been translated into a drug target in humans, the ADRA2A gene.

De Jesus, D. Epigenetic modifiers of islet function and mass. Trends Endocrinol. Ozcan, S. Clinical risk factors, DNA variants, and the development of type 2 diabetes. This paper presents a genetic explanation for the development of T2DM.

Travers, M. Insights into the molecular mechanism for type 2 diabetes susceptibility at the KCNQ1 locus from temporal changes in imprinting status in human islets. Diabetes 62 , — Gulli, G. Diabetes 41 , — Martin, B. Role of glucose and insulin resistance in development of type 2 diabetes mellitus: results of a year follow-up study. Metabolism 63 , — Kahn, S. Pathophysiology and treatment of type 2 diabetes: perspectives on the past, present, and future. Muller, D. Insulin response during the oral glucose tolerance test: the role of age, sex, body fat and the pattern of fat distribution.

Aging Milano 8 , 13—21 CAS Google Scholar. Nauck, M. Secretion of glucagon-like peptide-1 GLP-1 in type 2 diabetes: what is up, what is down? Diabetologia 54 , 10—18 Madsbad, S. The role of glucagon-like peptide-1 impairment in obesity and potential therapeutic implications. Diabetes Obes. Bays, H.

Role of the adipocyte, free fatty acids, and ectopic fat in pathogenesis of type 2 diabetes mellitus: peroxisomal proliferator-activated receptor agonists provide a rational therapeutic approach.

Perry, R. The role of hepatic lipids in hepatic insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes. Nature , 84—91 An excellent review of the specific lipid varieties and the molecular events through which they cause insulin resistance in the liver. Bensellam, M. Ritzel, R.

Human islet amyloid polypeptide oligomers disrupt cell coupling, induce apoptosis, and impair insulin secretion in isolated human islets. Diabetes 56 , 65—71 Collins, S.

Best Pract. Cabrera, O. The unique cytoarchitecture of human pancreatic islets has implications for islet cell function. Natl Acad. USA , — Hodson, D. Brandhorst, H. Assessment of intracellular insulin content during all steps of human islet isolation procedure. Cell Transplant. Rahier, J. Marselli, L. Are we overestimating the loss of beta cells in type 2 diabetes?

Diabetologia 57 , — Marchetti, P. The endoplasmic reticulum in pancreatic beta cells of type 2 diabetes patients. Diabetologia 50 , — Autophagy and the pancreatic beta-cell in human type 2 diabetes. Autophagy 5 , — Gupta, D. Islet amyloid and type 2 diabetes: overproduction or inadequate clearance and detoxification? Mezza, T.

Insulin resistance alters islet morphology in nondiabetic humans. Diabetes 63 , — Deng, S. Structural and functional abnormalities in the islets isolated from type 2 diabetic subjects. Diabetes 53 , — Igoillo-Esteve, M. Palmitate induces a pro-inflammatory response in human pancreatic islets that mimics CCL2 expression by beta cells in type 2 diabetes.

Giacca, A. Halban, P. Natural history and physiological determinants of changes in glucose tolerance in a non-diabetic population: the RISC Study.

Diabetologia 54 , — Michaliszyn, S. Mari, A. Mechanisms of the incretin effect in subjects with normal glucose tolerance and patients with type 2 diabetes.

Holst, J. Loss of incretin effect is a specific, important, and early characteristic of type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care 34 , S—S Camastra, S. Cell Metab. Shulman, G. Quantitation of muscle glycogen synthesis in normal subjects and subjects with non-insulin-dependent diabetes by 13C nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy.

This study demonstrated that defects in insulin-stimulated muscle glycogen synthesis was the major factor responsible for whole-body insulin resistance in patients with T2DM.

Glucose and free fatty acid metabolism in non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. Evidence for multiple sites of insulin resistance. Guilherme, A. Adipocyte dysfunctions linking obesity to insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes. Cell Biol. Gerich, J. Renal gluconeogenesis: its importance in human glucose homeostasis. Diabetes Care 24 , — Honka, H. Validation of [ 18 F]fluorodeoxyglucose and positron emission tomography PET for the measurement of intestinal metabolism in pigs, and evidence of intestinal insulin resistance in patients with morbid obesity.

Diabetologia 56 , — Meijer, R. Insulin-induced microvascular recruitment in skin and muscle are related and both are associated with whole-body glucose uptake. Microcirculation 19 , — Insulin in the brain: its pathophysiological implications for states related with central insulin resistance, type 2 diabetes and Alzheimer’s disease. Lausanne 5 , Kleinridders, A. Insulin action in brain regulates systemic metabolism and brain function.

Kulkarni, R. Cell 96 , — Oliveira, J. Targeting type 2 diabetes: lessons from a knockout model of insulin receptor substrate 2. Samuel, V. Mechanisms for insulin resistance: common threads and missing links. Cell , — An excellent review of the molecular mechanism responsible for insulin resistance in T2DM and obesity. Magnusson, I. Increased rate of gluconeogenesis in type II diabetes mellitus. A 13C nuclear magnetic resonance study. This study demonstrated that increased rates of hepatic glucose production in patients with poorly controlled T2DM could entirely be attributed to increased rates of gluconeogenesis.

Matsuda, M. Glucagon dose-response curve for hepatic glucose production and glucose disposal in type 2 diabetic patients and normal individuals.

Metabolism 51 , — Baron, A. Role of hyperglucagonemia in maintenance of increased rates of hepatic glucose output in type II diabetics. Diabetes 36 , — Influence of hyperinsulinemia, hyperglycemia, and the route of glucose administration on splanchnic glucose exchange. USA 75 , — The disposal of an oral glucose load in patients with non-insulin-dependent diabetes. Metabolism 37 , 79—85 Characterization of renal glucose reabsorption in response to dapagliflozin in healthy subjects and subjects with type 2 diabetes.

Barrett, E. Insulin regulates its own delivery to skeletal muscle by feed-forward actions on the vasculature.

Hemodynamic actions of insulin. Dissection of the insulin signaling pathway via quantitative phosphoproteomics. Cusi, K. Insulin resistance differentially affects the PI 3-kinase- and MAP kinase-mediated signaling in human muscle.

Krook, A. Characterization of signal transduction and glucose transport in skeletal muscle from type 2 diabetic patients. Diabetes 49 , — Copps, K. Diabetologia 55 , — Bouzakri, K. IRS-1 serine phosphorylation and insulin resistance in skeletal muscle from pancreas transplant recipients.

Diabetes 55 , — Hiratani, K. Krssak, M. Intramyocellular lipid concentrations are correlated with insulin sensitivity in humans: a 1H NMR spectroscopy study. Diabetologia 42 , — Petersen, K. Leptin reverses insulin resistance and hepatic steatosis in patients with severe lipodystrophy. Reversal of nonalcoholic hepatic steatosis, hepatic insulin resistance, and hyperglycemia by moderate weight reduction in patients with type 2 diabetes.

Lara-Castro, C. Intracellular lipid accumulation in liver and muscle and the insulin resistance syndrome. Yu, C. Mechanism by which fatty acids inhibit insulin activation of insulin receptor substrate-1 IRS-1 -associated phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase activity in muscle. Bezy, O. Mechanism of hepatic insulin resistance in non-alcoholic fatty liver disease. Choi, C. Suppression of diacylglycerol acyltransferase-2 DGAT2 , but not DGAT1 , with antisense oligonucleotides reverses diet-induced hepatic steatosis and insulin resistance.

They will undertake analyses of the environment using techniques such as 6 PEST. This technique provides a framework that allows analysis of the environment 7 by categorising it under various headings; a short example is given in Figure 4.

They recommend an expansion of 11 the framework to encompass the Environment, that is, the physical or green environ- 12 ment, Information and the Legal or regulatory aspects. Global warming, pressures to move from car-based transport, sustainability, 16 waste disposal and so on are all key issues.

The ubiquity and power of the internet radically alters 19 the past position where certain kinds of information have been the protected domain 20 of a privileged few. Furthermore the ability of outsiders to look into organisations trans- 21 parency and the ability of insiders to transmit information outside the organisation 22 porosity bring new challenges.

In addition 24 to growing amounts of national legislation, there are transnational regulations such as EU 25 directives and international agreements such as GATT. As 2 organisations become increasingly global they need to be aware of religious and social 3 differences between and within the countries in which they operate. Organisational 4 cultures differ too and values between suppliers, distributors and organisations or even 5 different parts of the same organisation can be quite distinct.

There are no standard responses; the drivers will be different depending 10 on the country, sector and organisation. It is also vital to identify the inter-relationships 11 between the key drivers. Economic trends may force political decisions and technology 12 often affects lifestyles and social interactions.

For example, the internet has transformed 13 working, purchasing and leisure patterns. Public relations planners are 23 in a privileged position in that they interact with organisational publics frequently: their 24 job is to manage and facilitate the communication between the organisation and its 25 publics, sometimes in conjunction with colleagues from elsewhere in the organisation.

A typical organisation interacts with an enormous number 40 of publics. Esman has usefully categorised these into four types of organisa- 41 tional linkages, as illustrated by Grunig and Hunt Figure 4. Functional linkages provide input into 44 the organisation and consume its outputs. Normative linkages are those with peer organ- 45 isations, and diffused linkages are with those who have no formalised relationship with 46 the organisation, but have an interest in it.

Managing and interpreting information requires 36 both research and analytical capabilities and is an indication of the skills set required 37 of senior practitioners. Public 40 relations practitioners are used to dealing with complex situations and of making sense 41 of inter-linked issues involving a variety of publics.

Thus they can make a valuable 42 contribution to strategy-making by offering their skills of interpretation and counselling. Used by permission of Chapman and Hall 27 28 opinion is moving on a particular issue. Public affairs departments are often plugged 29 into government thinking on prospective legislation or have access to think tanks who 30 specialise in futures. Their boundary-spanning role helps public relations professionals 31 maintain an independent perspective to decision-making.

These models describe the 37 process of information gathering required when organisations are deciding which 38 strategic approach to take. Thus, relatively closed 3 organisations do not take much account of the environment, they do not adapt to 4 changing circumstances and usually they eventually cease to exist. Relatively open 5 organisations are very responsive to the environment.

They are acutely aware of change, 6 and adjust and adapt to either counteract or accommodate it. A key concept is that the 7 organisation both affects and is affected by the environment in which it operates.

Open organisations, on the other hand, monitor their environment to gauge and 10 anticipate change and decide on a course of action before they are driven to one by 11 external events. For example, media relations is judged on the number of releases 20 produced and the level of press cuttings achieved, not on the appropriateness or effec- 21 tiveness of the output.

Genuine feedback is rarely sought, only feedback 24 on what techniques will make the transmission of information more effective. The emphasis here is on reciprocity — communication with 41 publics takes the form of a genuine dialogue the two-way systematical approach advo- 42 cated by Grunig and Hunt and explained in Chapter 1 and the organisation is as likely 43 to change as the target publics as a result of the communication exchange.

This idea 44 is illustrated in Figure 4. Where there is a differ- 47 ence in what these should be, change can be initiated before real issues or problems 48 arise.

This proactive stance is important for organisational decision-making and that is 49 why public relations practitioners who operate in this fashion are often part of the dominant coalition. In other words, practitioners 29 are principal decision-makers as opposed to just communicating results of decision- 30 making. However, more is possible. The internet can be used to build dialogue in 37 a potent and dynamic way by providing a level of immediacy, reach and interactivity 38 that has been impossible in the past.

They will 6 not be involved in organisational decision-making. Boundary-spanners in a very real sense, 35 communication facilitators remove barriers and establish links between all interested 36 parties.

In general, junior practitioners tend to operate at the technician 48 level while senior practitioners undertake the management roles. Used by permission of Lawrence Erlbaum Associates 22 23 area of expertise. For example, journalists who move into a public relations role can 24 handle media relations at all levels in a highly skilled and effective way. Figure 4. Externally management 43 communication is about communicating organisational vision to win the support of 44 external stakeholders.

This 47 includes identifying customer needs. Most of these activities Van Riel states to be within the remit of public relations. The second question would require a list covering several 13 pages and that would be inappropriate here.

Many of the channels used are described 14 later in this book, but some of the most commonly used in public relations are the 15 media, conferences and exhibitions, direct literature, sponsorship, in-house journals, 16 corporate identity programmes, special events, corporate advertising and the internet.

He suggests that each channel be borne in mind 2 when an organisation considers communicating with its publics. This model provides a 6 clear demonstration of the scope and complexity of the public relations role. There is no single 13 blueprint for either the structure or the range of activities that should be undertaken, 14 15 and priorities will differ in every organisation. New, fast growing and turbulent sectors such 23 as the dot. Neither type of environment requires the public relations effort to be more 25 or less strategic, but the speed of development and the in-built capability to change 26 direction quickly will be more of a prerequisite in the latter.

A manufacturer or 28 retailer of fast-moving consumer goods could well require a heavier marketing commu- 29 nication focus whereas working for a trade or professional body may mean that member- 30 ship communication or lobbying are the primary public relations activities. It may even be outsourced to an individual or consul- 40 tancy. The range of activities may well be restricted and undertaken by a public rela- 41 tions generalist. Large organ- 43 isations will have larger public relations departments.

A number of factors need to be considered. Some organisations, for example 2 niche manufacturers of space components, may have a limited range of publics. Some organisations have publics that form fairly discrete 5 blocks, for example car dealers have groups of customers, suppliers and employees.

Some organisations have publics in a wide geographical area or 8 several socio-economic bandings. Others focus on concentrated areas. Employees are an example of a public intimately con- 15 nected with an organisation. Other publics will have a more remote connection — 16 again pressure groups are an example.

Usually organisations start small. The owners know suppliers, customers 27 and employees. The public relations effort will often be one-to-one and the emphasis 28 is often on growth, thus marketing communication will be a priority. At this stage a generalist public relations professional may 31 be engaged to raise awareness of the company, its products and services. Internally, 32 the formal communication programme may begin. Now the organisation is likely to be well established.

Employee communication is likely to be well devel- 39 oped, community relations will be a part of the agenda as the organisation takes on 40 a corporate social responsibility agenda and developing and maintaining a cohesive 41 corporate identity will be a priority.

The in-house department of several staff, usually 42 with specialisms, could well be complemented by engaging public relations consul- 43 tancies to work in such areas as government affairs and investor relations.

Open organisations usually avoid decline by adjusting their activities or 45 moving into new areas. However, organisations do move into periods of temporary 46 or permanent decline, for example through takeover, legislative change or bad 47 management. Here public relations has a key role to play in identifying issues in 48 the environment in order to avert crises. Ultimately, there is nothing public relations 49 can do if a business is non-viable. However, it is possible to exit with dignity and with reputation intact, and public relations has a key role to play.

To most marketers public relations means 23 publicity, that is, obtaining usually media coverage in support of products and services. Marketing has broadened its parameters to include 30 relationships with internal customers employees and the broader external stakeholder 31 community. Even so, different professional outlooks 34 do maintain diverse perspectives which are of value to organisations. What is obviously clear is that internally there needs to be 39 a clear understanding of the roles of each discipline and where the responsibilities lie.

However, 44 there is rejoicing when a public relations professional is made a chief executive or 45 director of corporate communications with marketing as a subservient partner.

What 46 is good for public relations is that as many people as possible from as many disciplines 47 as possible are aware of the contribution that public relations can make in both strategic 48 and tactical ways. It is a sign that public rela- 4 tions has come of age that its unique contribution in stakeholder relations is recognised.

It is true that the dialogue skills that public relations staff acquire with 9 a range of stakeholder groups will be invaluable, but organisations also need to sell or 10 obtain support for their products and services to survive. A good general reputation, 11 often maintained through sustained public relations activity, will attract customers and 12 users of services.

Good service and products enhance reputation. Organisations need 13 both marketing and public relations. The communication aspects of these matters, including 22 how to communicate with employees and external stakeholders, would normally 23 involve public relations expertise.

Control of employee communication and the division 25 between what is rightly communicated by human resources and public relations are 26 areas of potential debate. This might involve communication with employees who are 28 located within the local community and also with potential employees, and again 29 require careful assignment of responsibility for communication.

Lawyers are concerned that what is said may rebound on the organisa- 42 tion and often point out that there is no requirement to say anything. They value openness and 49 want to maintain dialogue. They are also acutely aware of the need to respond quickly to given situations — again the legal process usually takes time.

Product recalls and libel cases usually include both 3 a public relations and a legal dimension and it is not uncommon for legal representa- 4 tives and public relations professionals to speak on the same issue for an organisation.

As expert boundary-spanners, public relations professionals can play a key role 13 in the dominant coalition by gathering and interpreting information from the external 14 and internal environments and presenting this as strategic intelligence. On the basis of 15 this, organisations can adapt and change or initiate a dialogue so that the continued 16 support of their key stakeholding publics can be assured. This 24 has clearly demonstrated the variety of range and emphasis that public relations can 25 have and has indicated the panoply of skills the expert practitioner requires.

In short there is a call for 29 genuine public relations within the management context. Indeed, Cutlip et al. They go on to suggest that the latter contributes to making the democratic 24 process more effective.

Private 40 income was necessary as the professions offered little pay. Later, specialised know- 41 ledge became the basis for entry Cutlip et al. Most of its practitioners have little training in the 32 social sciences. Few have been trained in public relations.

We must admit that 33 many people today who call themselves public relations practitioners still do not 34 measure up to professional standards. They also have a set of values 40 and a code of ethics that discourage the use of their knowledge and technical skills 41 for antisocial purposes.

Years of training are necessary to become a doctor, lawyer or accountant, 5 followed by more years of on-the-job training. The Commission on 12 Public Relations Education recommended that the content of undergraduate and post- 13 graduate courses should include mass communications, PR theories, media relations 14 techniques, research methodology, case studies, work placements and PR management 15 Cutlip et al.

A further commission in added ethics, law and evaluation to 16 the list IPRA This was updated by the work of the Public Relations Education Commission set up by the Public Relations Society of America PRSA in , which 18 looked at the knowledge and skills which should be included in undergraduate and 19 postgraduate courses. We 28 also strongly recommend [teachers] to continue to develop their professional experi- 29 ence while they hold teaching appointments.

It was felt that this would raise the status of the profes- 38 sion in general, as well as that of the Institute. The IPR moved towards tightening its 39 entry requirements. Using this matrix as a base, the IPR approved six courses in , including 45 vocational, undergraduate, postgraduate and masters programmes in the UK.

Since then, the number of approved courses has risen to eighteen. Mindful of the need to maintain standards 39 in its delivery, these courses are only available at a few venues again, details on the 40 IPR website.

IPR 47 research carried out in found that 98 per cent of senior managers in the industry 48 expected entrants to have a degree IPR This has led to a major initiative to 4 improve the commitment to training within the industry. The IPR has also started to 5 benchmark the provision of commercial training organisations with its Approved 6 Training Provider kitemark.

Public relations practitioners. The 34 emphasis is on practical techniques. The technocratic model is more associated with 35 professions, and consists of a systematic knowledge base founded on academic disci- 36 plines, the application of that base to practice, and supervised placements in practice. The 38 third model, or post-technocratic, emphasises professional competence and bridges the 39 gap between education and employment. All IPR workshops now carry 14 an indication of their level, and the overall structure can be used by both individuals 15 and companies when planning their training requirements.

Courses of the Approved 16 Training Providers are also linked to level and subject. The framework has been constantly updated, and contains an indication of the skills needed to ensure that PR 18 practitioners can use new technology see later discussions on the implications of new 19 technology in Chapters 18, 19 and The PR sector has seen consistent 27 growth.

However, the industry has not been able to tool up 29 fast enough to satisfy demand. This will need to change. It has strict criteria for membership, and is developing a Diploma 36 in Consultancy Management. We will look at the content of these codes below. One problem with 39 the raising of standards within PR is that these organisations do not represent all of 40 those working in PR in the UK. The IPR has over 6, members, of which around 41 1, are students on the approved courses.

The size of 44 the circulation of the trade publication PR Week is often used as a guide, and this is 45 currently 17, Many people may work in a public relations capacity for an organ- 46 isation, but may not be called a public relations practitioner. Some estimates of the 47 numbers in PR are as high as 40,, but around 20, would probably be more 48 accurate. Despite the numbers game, it can be seen that the two associations account 49 for a maximum of two-thirds of the industry.

Although still 11 small by national association criteria, the organisation represents around members 12 in over 70 countries, although there has been talk of it merging with the IPR as the 13 latter adopts a more global outlook.

Discrimination on any grounds is unacceptable professional 31 practice. Conditions to be taken into account when negotiating 33 fees for work are set out. Other recommended practice 36 papers issued by the IPR cover public relations and the law; the role and parameters 37 of PR practice; the use of embargoes, fees and methods of charging; and one of the 38 major issues which the IPR has been campaigning against, the use of charges for inclu- 39 sion of editorial in certain publications.

The IPR undertook a major consultation on its 40 Code in , and the revised Code is published on its website. Of course, the Charter is written with the members in mind, and 43 these are consultancies rather than individuals.

Accuracy, openness about interests and regard to the public interest 48 are also stressed. There are recommendations for those in 2 investor relations about dealing with price sensitive information. Healthcare profes- 3 sionals are directed to legislation and other relevant codes, and must ensure balanced 4 and accurate information is given. Parliamentary lobbyists have an extensive code which 5 relates to their conduct towards MPs and clients. The quality of consul- 9 tancy has improved over the past few years, but there is an increasing gulf between 10 those who are keen to add value and to make that value tangible, and those who 11 want to continue to trade on some black box mystique.

The latter are dinosaurs. In 38 per cent of the 16 countries, PR had been criticised for unethical conduct Lloyd However, as Director General 25 of the IPR, Colin Farrington, says 26 27 We are not equipped with police powers to investigate, and are reliant on complaints 28 before we act. Whilst some might feel that as we are not a statutory body our disci- 29 plinary procedures are our own affair, the courts would expect us to act in a defen- 30 sible way. There 41 are ten elements in the CMS, and member consultancies must score at least 50 per cent 42 in each section to pass.

Client satisfaction must be measured and service delivery moni- 46 tored. A commitment to training and development is also included. A lot of people have put a 9 lot of work into developing the professional standards, and we are committed to 10 upholding them. It is synonymous with trust and trust is the lubricant that 16 makes our practice function. Two years later 20 [he]. He was forced to resign. A further report on this topic was published in October 8 A review paper was then published, and further evidence was sought by May 9 The three bodies stated that they had adopted supple- 14 mentary and virtually identical codes to govern practice in this area.

The concept of social accountability is 46 becoming more widespread, and it is not only companies like the Body Shop and the 47 Co-operative Bank that are setting up social auditing systems. A report was commis- 48 sioned by BT at the beginning of to examine what roles companies could and 49 should take in society, and whether undertaking these roles was good for business Future Foundation They recognise that in order to achieve this, they 6 must get the message across about ethical and professional working standards, to counter 7 the historical beginnings of the industry in press agentry and publicity.

Whether or not 8 the IPR achieves chartered status, it has shown an increasing maturity in addressing 9 the concerns of the industry as a whole, rather than concentrating simply on the concerns 10 of its members.

The problem, ironically in an industry which prides itself on the ability 11 of its practitioners to communicate, is one of getting the message across to the rele- 12 vant stakeholders in business and government. The following case study demonstrates the importance of a strategic approach to corporate communication and 29 illustrates what can happen if symmetrical or reciprocal relationships with key stake- 30 holders are not effectively managed. The new bank would operate 7 only through telephones and computers.

His 10 Christian Broadcasting Network reaches 55 million viewers a year. Utilising the internet and other media, these groups co-ordinated 19 attacks on the deal. They set up websites with links to the media and the bank to help 20 the public to learn more about the issue and to register their condemnation.

Media coverage became dominated by reports of city 44 councils, universities, trade unions, charities and churches threatening to close their 45 accounts. A joint state- 2 ment said, 3 4 Dr Pat Robertson and Peter Burt, following a meeting in Boston yesterday, agreed 5 that the changed external circumstances made the proposed joint venture.

In reaching this agreement Dr Robertson expressed regret that the media 7 comments about him had made it impossible to proceed. We would like to see the bank reaching out to minority groups 18 to rebuild its reputation for equal opportunities, which before the Pat Robertson busi- 19 ness was very good.

The bank failed to predict the 28 strength of public reaction after announcing the deal with Dr Robertson. We have a long- 30 standing commitment to ethical values, tolerance, equal opportunities, and non- 31 discrimination in all our dealings.

Determination to uphold these principles as we 32 develop our business world-wide will continue to characterise the Bank of Scotland. They not 44 only do things right — they do the right things. In doing so, they act like 45 good citizens. However, its actions teaming up with Robertson and 3 defending the deal by attempting to distinguish between the ethics of commercial deci- 4 sions and the personal views of business partners is not congruent with the core values 5 its statement expresses.

At the time it with- 11 drew from the venture, only accounts had been closed by British customers 12 compared with more than 21, opened during the same period Guardian, 13 Clearly the potential gains would vastly outweigh the losses. As Fombrun 22 81 explains, 23 24 Corporate reputations have bottom line effects.

The economic value of a corporate reputation can 28 therefore be gauged by the excess market value of its securities. These stakes should be recognised by those whose actions may 10 impinge upon them. Individuals should recognise that their behaviour can have reper- 11 cussions upon society. They should act in a responsible way that does not damage 12 others.

Indeed, the BoS could be deemed to have transgressed several of the 29 tenets of stakeholderism. The bank opted for sustainable development.

Effective public relations strategists are involved in 49 organisational decision making see Chapter 4. Public relations should do formative research to scan the environment 14 and the behaviour of the organisations to identify these consequences. At this 21 stage focus groups are particularly helpful. The 27 media play a major role in the creation and expansion of issues.

At this stage, research should segment publics. In doing so it should follow steps 4—7. Indeed it argues that by adopting a stakeholder approach a 15 company will be well managed and therefore able to deliver greater value to its share- 16 holders. Not only did the internet 33 enable pressure groups to mobilise public pressure; it also facilitated fast and effective 34 access to information about the American preacher. We did not expect that the controversy he was associated with there would 45 have transferred to here where he has no political constituency or business.

However, 15 both the bank and Robertson were often reported as being unresponsive, refusing to 16 comment or blaming media distortion for their predicament. Eventually Robertson changed his PR approach and invited the press to America to visit his organisation and 18 speak to him directly. However, media views were already entrenched. They have got in a muddle.

The next chapter examines 33 whether corporate images can be managed, and subsequent chapters consider other 34 aspects of corporate PR such as public affairs, issues management and corporate social 35 responsibility. Kofax Power PDF. Security Security without passwords using Microsoft Active Directory Rights Management System Support for the latest PDF architecture updates for enhanced security and industry-standard encryption capabilities Lock down network connections and features for compliance and best practices.

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